Greek Invasion

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Who is Alexander?

Early Life and Education. Alexander, born in July 356 B.C., was one of several sons of the monarch of Macedon, Philip II, by his first wife Olympias, a princess of neighboring Epuria. Tutored in philosophy, science and culture by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, among others, and trained in the martial arts in his father’s army, Alexander was able to glean for himself the best that the Greek world had to offer. During his youth, his father carried out a campaign of Greek unification and military expansion, playing the largest role in the establishment of the Corinthian League, of which he became the head. Alexander was heavily involved in his father’s military campaigning and served as his regent in 340 B.C. During his days at court in Pella, Alexander was able to interact with the finest Greeks and Macedonians alive at the time, from poets and philosophers to actors and engineers, all of whose skills he would eventually put to use for his own formidable causes.

Succession to the Throne of Macedon. Philip II’s assassination in 336 B.C. took place a year after he had put Olympias aside for the younger Macedonian princess, Cleopatra. As a result, both Alexander’s contemporaries and later scholars have been very interested in the role that Alexander and his mother may have played in Philip’s death. Whatever his involvement or lack thereof, Alexander managed to gain the support of some of Philip’s more important generals and secured the succession as king of Macedon for himself. The right of succession of Philip’s status as leader (heoegemooen) of the Corinthian League had also been granted to his offspring, but Alexander was not able to step so neatly into his father’s shoes, for Philip’s assassination had left Alexander in a precarious political position.

The fragile alliance of Greek city-states that Philip had held together with an iron grip threatened to disintegrate, with the orators and politicians of Athens being by far the most critical of Alexander and the non-Athenian leadership of the coalition. Alexander, however, managed to overcome this opposition, and with the vicious exemplary subjugation and destruction of rebellious Thebes (for which Alexander would later be vilified by Athenian poets and statesmen) he was able to hold together his father’s alliance.

After the end of the New Kingdom indigenous Egyptian dynasties were weakened by rival factions in Upper and Lower Egypt, and Egypt was subjugated at times by foreign invaders: Libyans, Assyrians, Nubians, and Persians. In 332 B.C. Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great, who was followed as ruler by his

Ptolemaic Period (332-30 B.C.) The Transformation of Ancient Egypt.

Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C. Yet the culture of Ancient Egypt— its language, religion, art, and customs—continued to flourish for many centuries. Only very gradually did it transform itself into a new culture, that of Greco-Roman and Coptic Egypt.

Alexander’s general, Ptolemy, founded a new dynasty, whose rulers always spoke Greek, not Egyptian, as their first language. Their capital was at Alexandria, the new international trading center at the western tip of the Delta.

The Ptolemaic dynasty was responsible for a long period of prosperity and expansion abroad. Many remarkable agricultural and economic innovations occurred, including increasing the number of yearly crop harvests from an average of two to three bumper crops per year.

Many purely Greek settlements and trading cities were built, which were connected by the

Silk Route to Syria, Persia, India, China, and Japan. Egypt also increasingly experienced

rebellion from the native Egyptians, due to the hardships imposed on them from outside.

This situation ended with the self-inflicted death of the famous Cleopatra VII (30 B.C.) when Egypt officially became part of the Roman Empire. However, it was Cleopatra’s martyrdom that inspired most Egyptians to adhere to their traditional ways for almost another 500 years.

The history of Egypt does not end with Cleopatra, of course. For the next 600 years, Egypt was the leading scientitic, cultural, and religious province of the Roman Empire, ruled first from Rome (30 B.C.-ca. A.D. 320) and then from Constantinople (ca. A.D. 320-642). During this Roman and Byzantine Period, Egyptian culture and language interacted with the Greco-Roman world and evolved into the form we call “Coptic,” from the same root as the word “Egypt.” By the middle of the seventh century, the majority of Egyptians were Coptic Christians. The Coptic language is native Egyptian written in Greek letters (with some adaptations).

In A.D. 642, forces from the Arabian Peninsula took control of Egypt, and a new faith came to this ancient land, that of Islam. For the ensuing centuries, the Coptic Christian and Arabic Muslim languages, cultures, and faiths lived together in Egypt. It was not until the 12th or 13th centuries that the majority of Egyptians began to speak Arabic as their first language, with Coptic still used today in some places. The great Muslim Empires—from the Umayyad

Caliphate to the Ottoman Empire—ruled over Egypt for almost 1200 years, until Europeans— first the French, and then the British—invaded in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

After a little more than a century of European rule, Egypt gradually regained its sovereignty,

first as a Kingdom within the British Commonwealth in 1922, and finally as the independent

Arab Republic of Egypt in 1953. Today modern Egyptians of all faiths and traditions

highly value their ancient legacy of history, while embracing a future of peace, prosperity,

and democratic independence as part of the family of nations.

After defeating Darius, Alexander pursued the royal pretender Bessus across the Hindu Kush. Arriving at the banks of the Oxus, he was faced with a new challenge – Bessus had burned the wooden boats. Crossing the river seemed an impossible task, due to its width and fast current. Always an original thinker, Alexander was undaunted. He gave instructions that his men should sew up the hides they used for tents and use these as floats to cross the river. Within five days, they had all reached the other side.

Today's travellers don't need to go to such extreme lengths to get to Tajikistan. It is an seven-hour flight from Europe to the capital, Dushanbe, and even the mighty Oxus can be crossed each day by ferry.

Close to the river Oxus, evidence of Macedonian influence can be found in the temple at Takhti Sangin. The temple architecture combines Persian and Greek styles. Many of the artefacts excavated from this site are now on display in Dushanbe's Museum of National Antiquities – including a perfectly-preserved ivory head of Alexander. An inscription on a stone altar links this site to a much greater treasure: in 1877, a magnificent collection of gold

and silver objects was found here, dating from the Achaemenid Empire founded by Cyrus the Great (559-530 BC). The Oxus Treasure, as it is now known, was sold by Bukharan traders and changed hands many times before being bequeathed to the British Museum in 1897 by Augustus Wollaston Franks.

Having crossed the Oxus and captured Bessus, Alexander took fresh horses and set off for the royal capital of Sogdiana, Marakanda (Samarkand). From Marakanda, Alexander marched north to the river Jaxartes (Syr Darya). By the river, the Macedonians were attacked by Scythian hill tribesmen, who were swiftly routed. After this victory, Alexander decided to found a city on this site. He

called it Alexandria Eschate – “Alexandria the Farthest” – today's Khujand, in northern Tajikistan. Greek coins and other artifacts have been found in the foundations of the fortress which still stands overlooking the Syr Darya.

Alexander's defeat of the Scythians was not the end of his troubles. The Sogdians, led by a nobleman called Spitamenes, resisted Alexander and occupied seven frontier towns. Alexander divided his troops and five of the towns fell within two days. Alexander then moved to the largest of the seven, Cyropolis – modern Istarafshan. This city had been founded by Cyrus and was defended by a higher wall. Alexander's initial tactic was to order up the seige engines, but then he noticed something that made him change his mind. The stream that ran through the town was dry at this time of year, so there was room to crawl under the wall through the channels. Alexander and a few men entered the town this way and broke open one of the gates to admit his troops waiting outside. During the subsequent fighting, the Sogdians retreated into the citadel, but surrendered after one day for lack of water. Today it is still possible to climb up to the site of Istarafshan's fortified citadel and to look down on the course of the stream that Alexander used to enter the city. Although the city walls are long vanished, their location has been preserved in the names of some of the city's districts.

Alexander now marched for Marakanda, which was being beseiged by Spitamenes. On his approach, the Sogdians fled into their mountain fortresses along the river Polytimetus, today's Zerafshan river in western Tajikistan. News had come in that a large number of rebels had taken refuge in the Sogdian Rock, a supposedly impregnable fortress. Alexander advanced on the Rock in spring 327 BC. He found on a near approach that it rose sheer on every side against attack. There was deep snow on the summit, making the ascent more awkward and also providing the defenders with an unlimited supply of water. Nonetheless, Alexander was determined to make an assault.

Alexander called on the Sogdians to discuss terms. He offered to allow them to return to their homes unmolested if they surrendered. The reply was a shout of laughter. They told Alexander that he would need to find soldiers with wings. This made him all the more determined. About 300 of his men had experience in rock climbing from previous seiges. Using small iron tent pegs and strong flaxen ropes, they ascended the steepest part of the rock face. About thirty men died during the ascent, falling in the snow. The rest reached the summit as dawn was breaking. Alexander informed the Sogdians that they could now surrender, as the men with wings had been found and were now in possession of the summit. Imagining a much larger force than the handful of soldiers they could see, they surrendered immediately. Among the prisoners was Roxanne, a beautiful girl of marriageable age. Alexander fell in love with her at first sight and later they were married.